Outdoor Recreation and Park Management Essay

In order for a national park to protect their natural and cultural values, it is crucial for managers to effectively and actively administer protocols and regulations to safeguard the ecological integrity of the park and to provide to visitors the service they desire. While managers attempt to resolve such issues, they find themselves in a predicament where conflicting goals play a problematic factor. A diversity of issues poses as threats to the flora and fauna, vegetation and landscape of parks within Canada. Over the years, the ability to control fire, introduced plant life, losses of species, urbanization and tourism have contributed to significant issues that managers face on a daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly basis. Largely, the outlook of our ecological footprint and health of a park requires the management of the pressures of internal and external developments and public use. A park’s management strategies need to promote conservation of the vegetation, fauna and habitat within the park as well as catering for park visitors. Question 1: 5 Park Management Issues As a manager of a park, an array of issues affects both short term and long-term goals for management to contend with. At times, these issues usually conflict with the progress of anothe, in which forfeiting or sacrifice from one area is needed to fix another. I will introduce and explain 5 significant management issues that managers face while operating a park. 1. Tourism and Visitation The first of the issues that our park is faced with is tourism and visitation. Parks in Canada offer essential recreation assets for Canada. Their popularity with visitors indicates that immense visitor pressures are being placed on some parks and on the most popular recreation sites within a park. Tourism is an immense issue that we should not overlook and should not be underestimated. Below are two tables that display the sources of our income in parks and one that illustrates the revenue sources of parks for the 2000/2001 year. As we can distinguish in table 3, there is a huge influx of revenue emerging from park entry fees alone. $50 million is derived from park entry fees, camping fees and rental and concessions, where we can presuppose that these figures are a major financial backing for the operation of a park. This issue should be seen noteworthy to management as financial funding, in the means of tourism and visitation, secures a cushion for future developments and park sustainability. (Eagles, 2002) (Eagles, 2002) 2. Urbanization. A further more external pressure that parks are experiencing is the sudden emergence and increase of urbanization. â€Å" Increasing environmental pressures, such as those arising from increased tourist traffic and the urbanization of peripheral zones, with all the resulting air, water and noise pollution, have had as much impact on park ecosystems as they have on those outside the protected areas (Machlis & Tichnell 1985)†. For park managers, residential development is of great consequence and threat to the native fauna and flora of a park. Nonetheless, many people do not recognize the effects of their participation in activities on parks within proximity to where they reside. The effects of residential development on parks induce a magnitude of threatening ecological impacts. Such impacts include a foray of indigenous vegetation by persistent garden plants from bordering properties, a decrease in the scenic quality due to construction and clearing of vegetation, and soil erosion and dieback of vegetation as a result of storm water runoff (Solecki 1994). Storm water runoff from roads with the combination of the drainage of local residential wastes and treated waste matter from properties around a park is an additional aspect to be watchfully managed when urbanization becomes more apparent. The drainage as well as, the runoff from bordering roads can potentially lead to the decease of vegetation within the park. Poorly maintained septic tanks can result in nutrient-rich runoff being discharged. These wastes create unfavourable conditions for native vegetation and promote growth of weeds. Not only are smaller provincial parks are immune to this issue but also parks on a larger scale – national parks. 3. Loss of Species / Increase in Fauna The next issue to deal with is the introductions of species often unfavourably affect the native fauna and flora. The newly emerged fauna can directly contend with indigenous fauna for breeding sites and food. A possible harm that is negatively tied with the foreign fauna also introduced diseases, wide spread of weeds and prey upon native species (Louda 1997). Introduced species include domestic and feral cats, domestic dogs, foxes, rabbits, blackbirds and the common starling. This issue is not to be ignored as it is deeply tied into the overall appeal of why tourist may visit a park. 4. Fire One issue that should not go unnoticed for park management is the control of fire. The control of fire both negatively (forest fires) and positively (fire regime) should be placed as a priority as it endangers both human life and the ecological footprint of the park. Plant communities and their connected flora and fauna have progressed over thousands of years under a natural fire regime. The use of fire has key effects on ecosystems (Weber & Stock, 1998). The effects of fire management may be advantageous or undesirable, depending on the distinctiveness of the fire and the nature of the area burnt. Fires have the possibility to cause soil erosion, alter stream flow and water quality as well as change the vegetation composition. (Parsons, Graber, Agee, & Van Wagtendonk, 2005) Fire management is a very complicated and contentious issue, which often entails the balancing of fire safety requirements alongside vegetation and habitat management necessities. 5. Loss of Habitat / Increase in Flora Lastly, the fifth stand out issue that managers face when operating a park is the increase in flora. The spread of emerging plants from neighbouring residential gardens, abandoned farms, tracks and roadsides root a continuing change in the arrangement and diversity of the vegetation. This can lead to a considerable alteration in the nature of the ecosystem and habitat within the park. One persistent type of an introduced plant is weed. The destructive nature of many weeds is such that they quickly occupy disturbed areas and prevent the germination and regeneration of indigenous species (Louda, Kendall, Connor, & Simberloff, 1997). In this way weeds may reduce the variety of species present in a park. Weed can be a detrimental factor in parks as they can cause soil disturbance, grazing by introduced animals, increase frequencies of fire and the presence of bordering agricultural land with weed species. Question 2 – Two Outdoor Recreation Activities The two activities that I will be discussing are rock climbing and hunting. Both of these activities vary in the characteristics each one hold. When comparing both activities, I will point of the differences in environment used for each activity, the types of organizations provided, types of environmental attitudes, positive and negative impacts caused by them and the socio-demographics of the participants. For rock climbing, the environment used is very undemanding, as it is typically done outdoors. Climbs more often than not take place on sunny days when the holds are dry and provide the best grip. At their own discretion, climbers can also endeavor to climb at night or in poor weather conditions if they have the appropriate training and equipment. In spite of this, night climbing or climbing in poor weather conditions will increase the difficulty and danger on any climbing route. Hunting is a kind of recreational that demands money, time and effort. Today, most hunting in Canada is recreational and motivated by the tangible as well as intangible rewards of success. For hunting, the environment used differs greatly from rock climbing (Bruner, Gullison, Rice, & da Fonseca, 2005). For Hunting, weather is an integral aspect in the success of hunters, and ideal weather conditions time and again greatly increase the probability of a kill. â€Å"Ideal hunting weather is on a cold day, with light rain, and no wind. (Miller, 1990)† Windy days are usually poor for hunting, as the game are assumed to avoid open spaces on windy days. You may be able to hunt on a windy day, but you will have a more difficult time finding the game since they will not be congregating in open fields where they are highly visible. Hunting is best on days when there is a delicate drizzle. Most game, such as deer’s, enjoy the rain, and tend to be out on rainy days. Cold weather is the last element to good hunting weather. â€Å"Cold weather is best for deer hunting, as that is when deer are most likely to leave their dwellings. †(Miller 1990) Deer have an adrenaline rush when the temperature suddenly drops, which makes them even more vulnerable to hunters. Deer tend to avoid hot weather, and often sleep through the hot humid days of summer. Types of Organizations: There are a multiple of institutes and organizations that offer rock climbing. Typically the majority of provincial and national parks, and some regional and municipal parks offer rock climbing as one of their many outdoor recreation activities. In addition to parks offering this activity, many independent and private organization offer climbing experiences through clubs, for example, Alpine Club of Canada. Unlike rock climbing, the types of organizations in hunting are very restricted. Hunting is prohibited in National Parks across the country, but is available at selected provincial and regional parks. Being under governmental laws and regulations, higher authority set out rules governing hunters. These rules may entail strictures on age and qualifications of applicants for hunting licences, as well as defining hunting zones, seasons and bag limits. â€Å"Strict laws regulate when, where, what and how a person can hunt. In Ontario, each gun hunter must pass both the Canadian Firearms Safety Course exam and the Ontario Hunter Education Course exam (Govt Ont)† Type of Environmental Attitudes: Rock Climbing holds a more naturalistic attitude towards the environment. Rock climbing can be associated with a strong attachment to wild nature. Ones desire and contact desired is achieved through both the physical and mental aspect of climbing. Hunting holds a negativistic and doministic environmental attitude. It is usually associated with dislike, domination, and control. Depending on the type of hunting, it can display the dangers, the skill, the superiority, or the competition hunting bestows. Positive and Negative Impacts The positive impacts of rock climbing stimulate the participant both mentally and physically. When you consider the benefits of rock climbing, you usually think first of the physical benefits. Rock climbing is a recreation that requires a great deal of physical strength. Most people who become involved in the sport soon realize that they must be in excellent shape to even begin to enjoy it. This leads to an increase in physical conditioning that is most often beneficial to the participants overall health. Even though many rock climbers abide to the â€Å"leave no trace† and â€Å"minimal impact† practices, rock climbing can be damaging to the environment. Common environmental damages include: litter, chalk accumulation, soil erosion, abandoned bolts and ropes, human excrement, introduction of foreign plants through seeds on shoes and clothing, and damage to native plant species, especially those growing in cracks and on ledges as these are often deliberately removed during new route development through a process commonly referred to as cleaning. (Jakus 1996) Hunting brings forth both positive and negative impacts to the environment. The positive impact hunting retains is it helps maintain certain species of wildlife and their environment by keeping the animal’s population from exceeding its habitat’s carry capacity. It can bring wildlife populations up and create a much more nourishing environment for them. Hunting also provides predation for species of animal that no longer have predation due to various reasons. This keeps the ecosystem in balance ( Bruner 2005). Essentially, hunting Prevents wildlife populations from getting out of control that will eventually harm the wildlife, their environment, and possibly humans. As like some of the issues managers deal with, some pose as controversial and conflicting issues. One of the negative impact that hunting results in is it can cause populations of certain species of wildlife to decline. It may also interfere with natural predation which would cause the ecological footprint to drastically alter in the long run. Socio-demographics of Participants: The majority of people think that rock climbing is a recreation for men; this is not true at all. Climbing is an activity for both men and women, kids to adults. Rock climbing is a fairly inexpensive outdoor recreation compared to other activities like skiing. Educational background does not play a significant role in the decision to participate in such activity. Hunting is well scattered among age groups, with slightly more interest in the 35-44 age group. It is also popular among all education levels, with to some extent more interest shown by high school graduates. Hunting is mainly popular with rural residents and with those making $30,000-$49,999. The US Fish and Wildlife Service reports that approximately 35% of the nation’s hunters live in the South, as do 73% of the African-American hunters, 39% of the Hispanic hunters and 29% of the female hunters. Question 3 – Future Predictions My predictions for hunting will depend greatly on multiple factors. In the next 30 years I see hunting decreasing at a steady. Based on global climate, government laws and regulations, as well as park restrictions, hunting will be a very rare recreation. The changing climate will alter the hunting seasons in the means of shortening the duration periods. With strict gun laws and hunting regulations affirmed by the government and the rapidly changing economy, I feel as if the population will view hunting more of a hassle involving the multiple licensing and registration one needs to complete before being able to hunt. In addition, with the increasing urbanization in Canada, it will start to affect the more rural areas where hunting is allowed. Once these areas have been developed, laws will soon prohibit the use of hunting. My prediction for rock climbing is on the other side of the spectrum in regards to hunting. I strongly feel that there will be an increase in participation for this type of recreation. This is based on numerous of factors. Firstly, we live in a very physical and influential world. As the world becomes more health aware and proactive, people will start to view climbing as a physical activity. Similarly like yoga, this form of recreation and exercise involves overcoming both physical and mental barriers. It involves stretching of the muscles, as well as exercising of the mind. Overall, Park managers must consider a whole spectrum of issues in order to satisfy both the ecological footprint and the desires of the customers. It is a difficult challenge to prioritize one task over another as a great majority of them coincide with one another. Given the two very different outdoor recreation activities, we were able to observe the different environments, the impacts and the demographics each activity entails. From this we gain a stronger understanding of the the role that managers play in the delivery of outdoor recreation within Canada. Work Cited Bruner, A. G. , Gullison, R. E. , Rice, R. E. , & da Fonseca, G. A. (2005, Jan 5). Effectiveness of Parks in Protecting Tropical Biodiversity. Science 5 , 125-128. Eagles, P. F. (2002). Trends in Park Tourism: Economics, Finance and Management. Journal of Sustainable Tourism , 141-144. Fortin, M. -J. , & Gagnon, C. (1999, June 23). An assessment of social impacts of national parks on communities in Quebec, Canada. Environmental Conservation 26 , 201-206. Louda, S. M. , Kendall, D. , Connor, J. , & Simberloff, D. (1997, August). Ecological Effects of an Insect Introduced for the Biological Control of Weeds. Science 22 , 1088 – 1090. Miller, S. D. (1990). Impact of Increased Bear Hunting on Surviorship of young Bears. Wildl. Soc. Bull , 462-467. Parsons, D. J. , Graber, D. M. , Agee, J. K. , & Van Wagtendonk, J. W. (2005, July 03). Natural fire management in National Parks. Environmental Management , 21-24. Theil, D. , Menoni, E. , Brenot, J. -F. , & Jenni, L. (2007). Effects of Recreation and Hunting on Flushing Distance of Capercaillie. Journal of Wildlife Management , 1. Weber, M. G. , & Stock, B. J. (1998). Forest Fires and Sustainability in the Boreal Forest of Canada. Royal Sweedish Academy of Science , 545-547. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2001 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation: October 2002. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2006 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation: National Overview. May 2007.

Live until you die discussion

â€Å"Live until you die† is a broad phrase that can be interpreted differently depending on the individual who ponders upon on it. To me, living until one dies is simply having a quality of life, congruent to the individual's terms and definition of it. Many people are trapped living in the past, or even in the future, instead of relishing on the present of today, and the now. In our society, a person who prepares for the future usually grows to be successful, but some of us get caught up within that mentality, and forget to enjoy the moment.No one has time bought, and no one usually knows when one is going to die. Unfortunately, some people start â€Å"Living† once they know they have got their days on a countdown, but don't we all? Believe one starts dying the very moment one is born. We are all aware that we are eventually going to die, but reality doesn't usually settle in until one is living with a terminal illness.Living until one dies is enjoying every second Of our lives in the most idealistic possible way, and this should not only relate to terminally al patients, but to anybody who is alive. Everybody should live as though they are dying, and as palliative care nurses, we can advocate for our patient and help them live until they die. Matzo, M. & Sherman, D. W. (2015) Palliative Care Nursing: Quality Care to the End of Life. (4th deed. ) New York, NY:Springer.Response: Non-pharmacology interventions such as guided imagery or relaxation exercises have various benefits such as â€Å"Increasing the individuals sense of intro, decreasing the feeling of weakness, improving the activity level and functional capacity, reducing stress and anxiety, reducing pain behavior and pain focus, reducing analgesic dosage without escalation of pain and thus reducing side effects of the treatment† (Matzo,. 475). I agree, before we as nurses conclude or do anything we must first assess the patient. What does this patient know about these alternative procedures?

CHINA Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

CHINA - Assignment Example 244). It is, therefore, vital to find out how China has been able to change its economic geography to become a global economic market. The emergence of China and its transformation has challenged many geographers. They are constantly seeking to find out the forces behind Chinas transformation (Williamson 54). Other questions that intrigue economic geographers are how transition and reforms shape regions and if the diverse regions of this country are getting equal benefits from this economic transition. Regional inequality is an important element in economic geography as it draws attention of the proponents of convergence and divergence economies (Zhang 247). On the other hand, it has been important to socialist countries like China that have gone through numerous transitions and reforms. China’s economic success is much attributed to its diversity in terms of size, identity and history. One of the pioneers in Chinas economic policies is Mao, who developed a unique regional policy for the country (Williamson 53). While emerging as an economic giant, China had to deal with the problem of regional inequality. The citizens were much worried of social stability and equity that made Chinese leaders fully to commit themselves to ensuring that they accelerate economic growth, especially in the most interior provinces (Xu and Tan 68). Thus, the Chinese government has increased infrastructure budgets for poorer provinces almost every year. Besides, the country’s growth after 1 978 indicated an existing gap between income and growth rates in the coastal and inland provinces. The divergent in China’s regional income finds its root from preferential policies (Fan and 299). Though the inland provinces did not benefit much from these policies, China’s economy depends on the coastal towns. By focusing on coastal towns, this country has been able to engage in international trades thus transforming it into a market

Assignment 3 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Assignment 3 - Research Paper Example The political dimension of immigration comes in when the immigrants’ stay is of a long-term nature. The national government may be required to facilitate their participation in the civil and political life of the nation. This dimension would be in the lines of involving them in discussions regarding policies that may affect their stay in the country (Moses, 2006). The national government may even include them in voting activities. The economic effects come in a variety of ways, both long-term and short-term. Receiving countries may address skill shortages and at the same time, this may result in a burden to public welfare and a decrease in domestic wages (International Labor Office, 2010). The sending countries benefit from receiving remittances from the work performed by their citizens while abroad. If we considered North-North migration patterns in 2013, statistics show a significant number of migrants moving between the Russian Federation and Ukraine. A total of 3.5 million migrants moved to Ukraine from Russia and another 2.9 million people move to the Russian Federation from Ukraine. This massive influx of migrants from these areas may be due to a variety of factors including political instability caused by civil unrest and differences in policies employed to counter these scenarios. In comparison with other migration fields in the south, the migration pattern between these two countries shows the largest mutual flow between any other countries as of 2013 statistics. This pattern is shown evidently by the graph below. Many of these migrants moved in search of a better life, and since the conditions keep on changing in this part of the world, they end up in constant movement from one place to another. They may also move in search of better economic prospects that their country of origin may not have been able to provide. Hence, the migrants’ movement would improve their standards of living. Apart from economic benefits, these migrants may have

Case Study of Adesemi Communications International

Of Adesemi Communications International - Case Study Example In this case study, findings suggest that the reason behind the downfall is generally caused by the lack of experience. In particular, reasons of such failure are the cultural misunderstandings among the diverse workforce, the inexperienced and incompetent local business partners, the impatience of the quasi-governments who wanted to have their investments back, and the complete underestimation of the local government owning the national telephone company. Meanwhile, this analysis proposes that the impacts made by the country and market conditions were the most significant factor of the demise of Adesemi. Likewise, the case of Adesemi only shows that the company did not have a good pool of social networks and capitals that could have possibly helped save the company in those periods of crisis. From this experience, Monique Maddy, the CEO and founder of Adesemi, has learned the following insights. Firstly, cultural diversity must be transformed from a weakness to a strength through ap pointing an HR guru. Secondly, partnerships must be made not out of convenience. Thirdly, start-ups in developing countries should restrain from the type of investors who are just after the gains of the company. Fourthly, a patient and visionary investor with deep pockets willing to shell out money in times of financial crisis to save the company is needed in a third world start. Introduction Monique Maddy, a Harvard University graduate from Africa, dreams of being an entrepreneur. As a matter of fact, she happened to achieve her goal once, when she had established and run her own company in Tanzania, the Adesemi Communications International. Such dream had started when she wanted to set up her own company on an untapped market in a developing country in Africa. It had begun with an aim of transforming and modernizing the information technology sector in Africa. She had achieved this dream through Adesemi via making it possible for the thousands of lower and middle-class Tanzanian f amilies to gain access to affordable wireless communication services. Apart from that, as the company incorporated pagers, voice mails, and wireless pay phones, Adesemi had happened to launch the first fully integrated â€Å"virtual† phone system of the world in Tanzania. It is undeniable how successful Maddy was in establishing Adesemi. In addition to that success, the company was even financially successful and had $ 2 million annual revenue. Nonetheless, despite the case that it was on the verge of explosive growth, such success had come to an end when company was forced to shut down. In this regard, the focus of this analysis is mainly on the case of Adesemi Communications International. Specifically, it aims to answer four specific points. Firstly, its objective is to discuss the reason behind the failure of Monique Maddy’s Adesemi Communications International. Secondly, it targets to evaluate the impacts of the country and market conditions on the failure of laun ching a new innovation. Thirdly, using Adesemi’s case, it intends to understand the significance of social capital and network in entrepreneurship. Lastly, it points to identify what Maddy has essentially learned by the failure of her business venture. On the one hand, to examine Adesemi’s case is of significance for the reason that the learnings that can be obtained from this particular experience can aid the entrepreneurs as well as those who plan to set up their own business in the future,

Competition Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Competition Law - Essay Example 2 Competition is a fundamental economics theory and the supposed benefits to be derived from the working of competition in the market underlies the importance of competition law or policy. Classical theories of competition held that competition is a form of reciprocal rivalry in the market and government intervention in the market was frowned upon.3 The existence of competition, it is expected, should result in the lower prices, greater efficiency in markets, better products and services, and a broader choice of products and services for customers.4 It has been argued that the above mentioned benefits of competition cannot be attained in a monopolistic market.5 Where perfect competition exists, producers will produce more as long as the cost of each additional unit of production (i.e. marginal cost) will result in a profit. However, one's decision not to produce beyond what is profitable will not affect the market as there are other producers in the market. Consequently, the existence of competition will result in resources being allocated to produce goods at prices consumers are willing to pay and at prices that producers are also willing produce and able to make profit. This results in allocative efficiency.6 When competition is allowed to operate, it is also expected that it will promote productive efficiency. The reasoning is that, producers aim at producing at the lowest reasonable cost in order to win customers and stay in the market. Productive efficiency allows resources to be used efficiently and this maximises social welfare. Where a monopoly exists, the monopolists is not pressurised by competitive forces to be efficient in its production. The inefficiency of the monopolists is thus passed on to the consumer resulting in consumer having to pay more for less quality goods than they would have if competition was allowed to operate.7 Where monopoly persists, the monopolist can also create an artificial shortage of goods in order to raise prices. In such instances, allocative efficiency and productive efficiency would not exist and the welfare of society is undermined.8 Consequently, in order for society to benefit from these welfare advantages of competition, competition law is instituted to regulate the working of the market against monopolistic tendencies. Government intervention into the through laws, policies and institutions are thus justified to the extent to which it prevents market failure and allows competition to function effectively so as to achieve the social welfare benefits of competition. One of the most eminent economists of the 20th century, Frederich von Hayek, stated that: "The functioning of competition not only requires adequate organization of certain institutions like money, markets, and channels of information - some of which can never be adequately provided by private enterprise - but it depends above all on the existence of an appropriate legal system, a legal system designed both to preserve competition and to make it operate as beneficially as possible."9 Within the European Community (EC) competition law/policy is considered one of the important pillars for the functioning of the internal market. The Commission and the European Court of Justice (ECJ) thus frown on any form of behaviour by undertakings that have as its cause of effect, the prevention of competition from operating. Article 81(1) EC thus prohibits: " all agreements between undertakings, decisions by associations of

Walt Whitman's Idea of Women Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Walt Whitman's Idea of Women - Essay Example A look into his works, that are, at times, vivid with sexuality, proves that his works are a mixture of transcendentalism and realism, where he found females equal to males, and in fact, more important than males. However, he himself seems highly influenced by the social and religious norms that surrounded him in the 19th century that he could not see any other role for women other than household works, procreation of healthy offspring for the state, and keeping themselves healthy and willing to overtly express their sexual desires. Moreover, in his attempt to show the importance of females, he ends up giving them more importance than males because of their higher role in reproduction. In my opinion, Whitman is one among the many sex radicals of the 19th century, and though he proposed revolutionary ideologies on free expression of female sexuality, they are clouded by his own expression of male dominance in his works. This makes his position as a feminist a matter of controversy. Tr aditional roles of women in Whitman’s works Killingsworth admits the fact that for many scholars, Whitman’s females are nothing more than ‘functional creatures’ with just muscles and wombs (1). In addition, there comes the allegation that their only functions are sex and birth. This allegation seems substantiated in many of his writings. In ‘A woman waits for me’, he points out â€Å"yet all were lacking†¦if the moisture of the right man were lacking† (A woman waits for me). Here, instead of the desire to reform female covert expression of sex, the main intention seems to be the desire to make them cope with the unquenched sexual desires of the male-dominated society. As one moves ahead, there is the evident expression of what a chauvinist prefers to see in the females with whom he wants to have sex. â€Å"They are tann’d in the face by shining suns and blowing winds/ Their flesh has the old divine suppleness and strength/ They know how to swim, row, ride, wrestle, shoot, run, strike, retreat, advance, resist, defend themselves.† However, for a woman who possesses all these qualities, the duty Whitman gives is â€Å"I shall demand perfect men and women out of my love spendings.† Thus, it becomes very evident that though he seems careful about the health and wellbeing of females, the two responsibilities they are supposed to do, according to him, are healthy procreation and healthy sex. However, this conception about his intentions is, to a great extent, removed when one looks into his Prose Writings (II, 37 2n). He points out that the sole way to a reconstructed society depends on â€Å"new birth, elevation, expansion, invigoration of women, affording, for races to come†¦ a perfect motherhood† (qtd. Killingsworth, 3). Here, though his outlook is justified remarkably, it seems that his intention to elevate females is based on the need to ensure proper motherhood; not for female s’ sake. However, a look into the Prose Works of 1892 reveals that his intention was not only to make females willing to procreate healthy generation, but the kind of women he envisioned would be â€Å"robust equals, workers, and even practical and political deciders with men† (Whitman, Prose Works). Thus, in the opinion of people

Training and Development in Acquiring Work-related Skills Essay

Training and Development in Acquiring Work-related Skills - Essay Example You might not immediately be able to put great new emphasis on 'whole-person development'. Being realistic, corporate attitudes and expectations about what 'training' is and does cannot be changed overnight, and most organizations still see 'training' as being limited to work skills, classrooms, and powerpoint presentations. However, if you start imagining and thinking and talking about concepts and expressions such as: There are many different training and development methods. ... g, technical training, behavioral development training, role-playing and role-play games and exercises, attitudinal training and development, accredited training and learning, distance learning - all part of the training menu, available to use and apply according to individual training needs and organizational training needs. Training is also available far beyond and outside the classroom. More importantly, training - or learning, to look at it from the trainee's view - is anything offering learning and developmental experience. Training and learning development includes aspects such as ethics and morality; attitude and behavior; leadership and determination, as well as skills and knowledge. Development isn't restricted to training - it's anything that helps a person to grow, inability, skills, confidence, tolerance, commitment, initiative, interpersonal skills, understanding, self-control, motivation and more. If you consider the attributes of really effective people, be they leaders, managers, operators, technicians; any role at all, the important qualities which make good performers special are likely to be attitudinal. Skills and knowledge, and the processes available to people are no great advantage. What makes people effective and valuable to any organization is their attitude. Attitude includes qualities that require different training and learning methods. Attitude stems from a person's mindset, belief system, emotional maturity, self-confidence, and experience. These are the greatest training and development challenges faced, and there are better ways of achieving this sort of change and development than putting people in a classroom, or indeed by delivering most sorts of conventional business or skills training, which people see as a chore.

Violent prevention programs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Violent prevention programs - Essay Example In the smaller context of family and community inter-action and violence prevention aspect, Jarvis (2011) offers the suggestion of creating a culture of candor. We are also of the strong belief that violence and crime lead in such condition with consequence so dire as the unquantifiable cost of economy and the more severe loses of human lives. It also causes great disturbance to peace, justice and equity. Violence and crime at its most wicked state presents the gravest and most vile threat to effective governance and weakens the very foundation of a growing society. It has been the cause of unmitigated fears and feelings of insecurity which are counter productive. We must lick the occurrences of such incidents from its very sources and origins. The committee overseeing the grant and awards for programs to prevent violence and crime offers the initial evaluation and needed criteria as the guiding principles of implementing the program and selecting the beneficiaries for funding from o ur limited resources.

Roe Through the Chain of Command Essay Example for Free

Roe Through the Chain of Command Essay President Johnson implemented the Rules of Engagement (ROE) during the war in Vietnam, particularly Southeast Asia. His intention for this set of rules was a means of control. The ROE dictated who (of the enemy) and where the American troops were allowed to attack, even if they were clearly within enemy reach. This set of rules benefited the hierarchy in the Chain of Command, but had a much less desirable effect on those who actually carried out the rules. This paper will explore the ROE and how it affected the military through the Chain of Command. Soldiers were limited in their ability to defend. The ROE paralyzed them from shooting even when they were shot at because the rules stated they must be certain their target is the enemy and not terrified civilians. They were only allowed to attack other soldiers and/or those dressed in combat gear with weapons (Moss, 2010). This negatively impacted the soldiers’ will to fight because they felt the ROE were not in place to protect them but to enforce political policy. Their requests were ignored. When in combat, the ROE forced the soldiers to keep their safety and preservation of their lives secondary while continuing to follow rules set forth by commanders on safe grounds (Moss, 2010). Battalion commanders are responsible for their battalion (300-1,000 soldiers) and the commands they are to execute during battle (United states army, para. 1). The Battalion commanders had the responsibility to directly enforce the ROE to the soldiers of the battalion. If the soldiers did not follow commands correctly or effectively, the Battalion commanders must answer to the Commander in Chief and suffer the consequences if any. The ROE limited the commanders from utilizing their sophisticated weaponry and equipment to its fullest capability. The Division commanders were considered experts in the military. However, their expertise was disregarded and ignored by the President. The Division commander would instruct and guide their soldiers to carry out well planned attack strategies but were often overridden by those higher up in command based on the ROE. What made sense to the Division commander was secondary to the restrictions of the ROE. The commanders were able to increase and add to the ROE but they were not allowed to reduce the rules or bend the rules in any way (Moss, 2010). The Division Commander was faced with great difficulty of knowing the enemy was at an advantage due to the ROE because their goal was to defeat the enemy. It seems the ROE had a different goal. In 1967, Gen William Westmoreland initiated his war of attrition in hopes of victory. Westmoreland requested 2000,000 additional troops to expand the military against the VC/NVA forces, among other requests. President Johnson denied these requests. President Johnson only approved 55,000 additional troops (moss, 2010, p. 216). General Westmoreland was one of the commanders whose expertise was ignored and overridden by President Johnson and Secretary McNamara. He was forced to give Americans false information on the US status of the war; this was demeaning to his professionalism. The department of Defense was responsible for informing Vietnam troops of ROE’s implementations and changes. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara delegated to the Joint Chief of Staff to provide the commanders with the rules. Debates were held when changes to the ROE occurred and Secretary McNamara was often the mediator who settled those debates. Again, during these debates, military advise from experts was often ignored (Drake, 1992 p. 9). It became apparent that the purpose of the ROE was to continue protecting decision makers President Johnson and Secretary McNamara. President Lyndon Johnson initiated the ROE’s in avoidance of the Soviet Union and China interferences. The ROE’s restricted the military commanders and â€Å"†¦played a major part in the failure of U.  S air power in this singular black mark on the record of American military aviation† (Dorschel, 1995, para. 1). President Johnson was hopeful that the ROE would be effective in controlling the temperament of the war. He was also using this limited war tactic to win votes during the 1964 elections. â€Å"The new president (Johnson) also feared that the injection of U. S. combat forces into the Vietnam War would provoke adverse reactions throughout the world and trigger uprisings of domestic opposition that could stifle his domestic reform program and cost him the 1964 presidential election (Moss, 2010 p. 122). President Johnson was convinced the military commanders were more concerned with spending and he did not consider their expertise and professional input when decisions were made during combat. â€Å"The president and his advisors often disregarded the advice of military experts, believing that: Generals know only two words: spend and bomb (Dorschel, 1995, para. 12). † It is apparent that the Rules of Engagement was used as a political tool to secure positions in office of President Johnson and General Westmoreland with disregard of preserving the integrity of soldiers, pilots, and commanders. The training nd skills of the troops were not appreciated and were completely negated by via the ROE. â€Å"Crews were forced to fly in predictable ways, fly the same routes over and over, and operate in ways that went against their training and experience. The continuous changes to the rules and the complexity of them made learning and remembering them a difficult task and the predictable nature of the campaign and the protected areas in North Vietnam caused heavy American losses. It was all but impossible to inflict the kind of damage necessary to achieve the stated goals of the offensive (Dorschel, 1995, para. 25).

Impact of Cyanobacteria Toxins

Impact of Cyanobacteria Toxins Introduction Cyanobacteria, or also known as blue-green algae is one of the bacteria phylum. It was classified as blue-green algae because it resembles eukaryotic green algae. Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic prokaryotes which have the ability to synthesize chlorophyll a. Chlorophyll a primarily absorbs most red and blue light, which allow cyanobacteria to obtain energy. This energy was then used to synthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water. Water is used as electron donor during the photosynthesis process and produces oxygen as a byproduct. Thus, the ability of cyanobacteria underwent the process of photosynthesis leading to the evolution of oxygen as they play an important role in increasing the amount of oxygen in Earth. Besides, cyanobacteria also called blue-green algae because of its ability to form the phycobilin pigment (phycocyanin). Phycocyanin is an accessory pigment where it works in conjunction with chlorophyll a. Phycocyanin pigment is the one that give bluish colour to cyanobacteria. According to Dittmann and Wiegand (2006), the lyses of a cyanobacterial bloom leads to release of high amounts of blue pigmented. However, the colour can degrade under condition of high exposure to light and heat (Jespersen et al., 2005). Because cyanobacteria are prokaryote, it is usually small and unicellular. Usually individual cyanobacteria are round, oval, globular or string-like in shape. However, cyanobacteria often growth in colonies and, thus are large and easily to view. These colonies are built of many layers and can form filaments, sheets or even hallow ball depend on its species and environmental condition. Cyanobacteria have been classified into five groups based on their morphologies. There are chrooccales (I), pleurocapsales (II), oscillatoriales (III), nostacales (IV) and stigonematales (V). Group l is unicellular cyanobacteria that divide by binary fusion or budding, while group II is unicellular form that divide by multiple fission. Then, group III is filamentous colonies that reproduce by trichome breakage (Henson, 2002). However, only groups IV and V are supported by phylogenetic studies and make up the heterocystous cyanobacteria. They have the ability to fix Nitrogen such as genera of Anabaena, Nostoc, and etc. Cyanobacteria are extremely successful organism that can adapt in any condition depend on its species. The fossil record shows their existence since 3.5 billion years ago and it are still around. According to Hitzfeld et al. (2000), the cyanobacteria inhabitants vary from hot springs to temporary frozen ponds in Antarctica. Cyanobacteria are gram negative that has cell wall made up of peptidoglycan and lipopolysaccharide layers that surrounded by gelatinous and mucilaginous sheath. The presence of the gelatinous sheath may help in survival of cyanobacteria during extreme conditions and desiccation (Duy et al., 2000). Cyanobacteria mostly found in brackish, freshwater, rivers, lakes, ponds and some reservoirs. They commonly live in such condition to get access of water and sunlight, as they do the photosynthesis process. The high accumulation of cyanobacteria is due to nutrient enrichment (eutrophication). The eutrophication is the process of water bodies gets the excess of nutrient a nd this promotes extremely growth of cyanobacteria. This nutrient may come from many sources, such as fertilizers applied to agriculture, erosion of soil containing nutrients and etc. The excess of nutrient lead to massive population of cyanobacteria, include the blooms, scums, and mats and biofilms (Codd et al., 2005). The existence of cyanobacteria bloom can reduce dissolved oxygen in water and may cause other aquatic organisms died. Alperdoorn et al. (2007) suggest that complex interaction of high concentration of nutrients, sunlight, warm temperature, turbidity, pH, conductivity, salinity, carbon availability and slow-flowing stagnant water are involved in production of blooms. Besides, the bloom of cyanobacteria is related with toxins released. Purpose of study The purpose of study is to analyze the type of toxins produced by bloom of cyanobacterial. Growth of cyanobacteria bloom is favored by nutrient enrichment. The increase of mass population of cyanobacteria will lead to high amount of toxin produced. Then, relate how these toxins act in order to affect humans and animals health. Objectives of study Production and mode of action of cyanobacteria Occurrence of cyanobacterial toxins in affects humans and animals -example case Routes of exposure Diseases in Humans and Animals Conclusion further work Production and mode of action of cyanobacteria toxins Properties of cyanobacterial toxins There are around 150 genera with about 2000 species of cyanobacteria has been recognized, as according to the current taxonomy. However, out of them, only 40 genera have been identified to produce toxins (Hitzfeld et al., 2000). The toxins produced by bloom of cyanobacteria are sometimes called cyanotoxins. The genera that release toxins from cyanobacteria bloom are include Microcystis, Anabaena, Anabaenopsis, Plankthothrix, Aphanizomenon, Cylindrospermopsis, Raphidiopsis and Nodularia (Codd et al., 2005). Cyanotoxins are classified into two grouped, where one is based on their modes of toxin affect the animals cells or cell system, and the other one is based on their chemical composition and structure (Codd et al.,1999). The first grouped are divided into four types, which are hepatotoxins, neurotoxins, cytotoxin and irritant toxins (Codd et al., 2005). However, the second grouped is classify into three different chemical structure which are cyclic peptides, alkaloids and lipopolysa ccharides (LPS) (Sivonen Jones 1999). The production of cyanotoxin are highly variable depends on time and an individual bloom itself. Besides, the arrangement of the genes and their expression under certain environmental condition also contribute in released the toxins. Hepatotoxins-cyclic peptides Hepatotoxins class has the chemical structure of cyclic peptides. These kinds of toxins are released by bloom of cyanobacteria that ranging from freshwater to oceans. Among the common hepatotoxins produced are mycrocystins and nodularins. Microcystin is first found in the early 1980 and isolated from Microcystis aeruginosa. Thus, the toxins were named as microcystin (Sivonen Jones 1999). Then, it was identified that microcystins also have been produced from the genera of Anabaena, Microcystis, Planktothrix, Nostoc and Anabaenopsis (Hitzfeld et al., 2000). Differ from microcystins, where nodularins only produced by the genera of Nodularia and were names as nodularins after its producer, Nodularia spumigena (Falconer 1998). Both are widespread cyanotoxins because the presence of gas vesicle that provides buoyancy. Gas vesicles enable them to float up or sink in order to get sunlight and reach the site of nutrient-rich layers (Dittmann Wiegand 2006). Enough of nutrient and sunlight en able the cyanobacteria to undergo the photosynthesis process and lead to excess growth. Therefore, the cyanotoxins of microcystins and nodularins could be produce enormously and can disturb the ecosystems Microcystins are difference from nodularins based on their chemical structure of cyclic peptides. The chemical structures of microcystins have been identified as cyclic heptapeptides, while nodularins has chemical structure of cyclic pentapeptides (Codd et al., 1999). Cyclic heptapeptides refer to microcystins that contain seven peptide-linked amino acids. There are five common amino acids and another two L-amino acids are varied (Park et al., 1993). The five common amino acids are D-erythro-ÃŽ ²-methylaspartic acid, D-alanine, N-methyldehydroalanine, D-glutamate and Adda-3-amino-9-methoxy-2, 6, 8-trimethyl- 10-phenyldeca-4, 6-dienoic acid. The variable L amino acids are located at position 2 and 4. The variable of L amino acids increased the variations in microcsytins structure and so far there are about 70 structural variables have been identified (Codd et al., 2005). Besides that, demethylation of D-erythro-ÃŽ ²-methylaspartic acid and N-methyldehydroalanine amino acids also give variation in microcystin structure. In contrast, only about 6 variant of nodularins structure have been recognized (Codd et al. 1999). Both microcystins and nodularins only release from cyanobacteria bloom once it was lyses. These toxins are potent inhibitors of eukaryotic protein phosphotases activity (Park et al., 1993). According to Codd et al, (2005), this inhibition can change the membrane integrity and causing tumor production and liver damage. Liver is the main targeting organ in this action of toxins. Neurotoxin-alkaloids Neurotoxins contain the chemical structure of alkaloids. Alkaloids are chemical compound that contains any basic nitrogen atoms and produced by cyanobacteria. It cause toxic that act on nerve cell (neuron). So far, three known families of neurotoxins are anatoxin-a, anatoxin-a(S) and saxitoxins. Anatoxin-a acts by mimic acetylcholine, while anatoxin-a(S) inhibit acetylcholinesterase. Next, saxitoxins which relatively associated with paralytic shellfish poisons (PSP) are works by block the sodium channels. These toxins have been reported found mostly in area of North America, Europe and Australia (Sivonen Jones 1999). Devlin et al. (1977), identified anatoxins-a as a secondary amine 2-acetyl-9-azabicyclo (4-2-1)non-2-ene. Anatoxin-a is usually released by Anabaena flos-aquae, Anabaena spp, Anabaena planktonica, Oscillatoria, Aphanizomenon and Cylindrospermum (Sivonen and Jones, 1999). This toxins cause symptoms such as fasciculation, gasping and convulsion, when infection occurred in animals (Mazur et al., 2003). In contrast, Anatoxin-a(S) is guanidine methyl phosphate ester and produced by Anabaena flos-aquae and Anabaena lemmermannii (Codd et al., 2005). However, its structure still h as not been recognized. Sanitoxins are group of carbonate alkaloids and about 20 of structural variations has been recognized (Codd et al., 2005). Sanitoxins are produced by species of Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, Cylindrospermopsis, Lyngbya, Planktothrix and Trichodesmium (Carmichael et al., 2001) Cytotoxin-alkaloids Cylindrospermopsin is the example of cytotoxin released and has been found in tropical and subtropical water such as in lakes, rivers and water supply reservoir (Falconer 1998). According to Hitzfeld et al (2000) and Codd et al (1999), cylindrospermopsin could also be categorized as hepatotoxins because it affects liver damage. However, Codd et al (2005) and Falconer (1998) have categorized it under cytotoxin class because its action as an inhibitor of protein synthesis. This inhibition cause damage to tissue that rapidly synthesize protein such as pituitary gland, epithelia including gut lining, the pancreas, lymphoid tissue and the prostate gland, as well as the kidneys and liver (Falconer 1998). This toxin is also genotoxic, which can cause loss of chromosome and break of DNA strand (Humpage et al 2000). Cylindrospermopsin is a cyclic guanidine alkaloid and has been isolated mainly from cylindrospermopsis raciborskii and also from Aphanizomenon ovalisporum, Umezakia natans, Aphani zomenon flosaquae and Raphidiopsis curvata (Falconer and Humpage, 2006). Irritant toxins Irritant toxins are usually related with skin irritant (dermatoxin). Aplysiatoxin and lyngbyatoxin is alkaloid structure and both are the most toxins that cause skin irritation. Aplysiatoxin is produced by genera of Lyngbya, Oscillatoria and Schizothrix whereas Lyngbyatoxin is produced by Lyngbya (Codd et al 1999). Aplysiatoxin also is potent tumour promoters and Lyngbyatoxin also caused severe oral and gastrointestinal inflammation (Sivonen and Jones, 1999). LPS endotoxin released by cyanobacteria is less potent than released by bacteria, such as Salmonella (Codd et al 1999). LPS is localized at outer membrane wall of cyanobacteria and contain lipid A that responsible for much of toxicity of cyanobacteria. LPS endotoxin in cyanobacteria is produced by Microcystis, Oscillatoria and Anabaena (Codd et al 1999). The signs and symptoms of this toxin are fever, rigors, headache, nausea, mild amnesia and diarrhea (Stewart et al., 2006). According to Codd et al (2005), it may contribute to inflammatory and gastrointestinal incidents. Toxin Chemical structure Producer Genera Primary target organ Hepatotoxins Microcystins Cyclic heptapeptides Microcystis, Anabaena, Planktothrix, Nostoc Anabaenopsis Liver Nodularins Cyclic pentaptides Nodularia Liver Neurotoxins Anatoxin-a Alkaloids Anabaena, Oscillatoria and Aphanizomenon, Cylindrospermum Microcystis Nerve synapse Anatoxin-a(s) Alkaloids Anabaena Nerve synapse Saxitoxins Alkaloids Aphanizomenon, Anabaena, Lyngbya Cylindrospermopsis Nerve axon Cytotoxins Cylindrospermosin Cyclic guanidine alkaloids Cylindrospermopsis, Aphanizomenon, Umezakia Rhapidiopsis Tissue damage include liver and kidney Irritant toxins Lyngbyatoxin Alkaloids Lyngbya Skin, GI tract Aplysiatoxin Alkaloids Lyngbya, Oscillatoria Schizothrix Skin Endotoxins LPS Microcystis, Oscillatoria Anabaena Potential irritant affect any exposed tissues Table 1: Updated from Codd et al. (1999) and Sivonen Jones (1999). This shows the summaries of general features of cyanotoxins. Occurrence of cyanobacterial toxins The cases of cyanotoxins affect humans and animals have been reported occurred throughout the world. This include part of Europe (such as Belgium, France, Germany, UK, etc), America (at least 27 states), Middle East and Asia (such as Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, Thailand), Australasia (such as Australia, New Zealand), Africa (Botswana, Morocco) and also Marine Atlantic Ocean (Baltic Sea, Caribbean sea) and Antarctica (McMurdo Ice Shelf) (Codd et al., 2005). From the case reported, cyanatoxins affect animals, include wild and domestic mammals, birds, amphibians and fish, while human cases ranging from acute to chronic (Hitzfeld et al., 2000). The first case of cyanotoxins occurred in animals was the death of cattle, sheep, dogs, horses and pigs. This took placed in Lake Alexandrina, Australia in 1878. The death of these animals was due to drink the water that contains a scum of Nodularia spumigena (Francis, 1878) . After this case, numerous cases have been reported and most commonly involved death of farm animals after drinking the contaminated water with cyanobacterial bloom (Hitzfeld et al., 2000). For example, in 1991 the death of sheep has been recorded in Darling River, Australia. This death occurred after drinking from a farm dam contaminated with saxitoxins, released by Anabaena circinalis (Goodman et al., 1999). Besides, the cases of dog deaths after swimming in, or eating, cyanobacteria also occurred. In 1992, death of dogs at Loch Insh, Scotland happened after swimming was due to release of Anatoxin-a by Oscillatoria sp. into the water (Edwards et al., 1992). Among the earliest reported cases involving acute effect in humans was a series of town along the Ohio River, US in 1931. It start when the water of a side branch of the river develop a cyanobacteria bloom because of low rainfall. This water was then washed into the main river and caused a series of gastroenteritis once it moves downstream (Tisdale 1931). However, the toxins caused this outbreak is unknown and the organism that released this toxins was unspecified. Then, another case involving the same diseased, (gastroenteritis) was reported in Harare, Zimbabwe in 1966. This time Microcystis aeruginosa was the one that has been identified responsible in this case, but the toxins released was still not known (Hitzfeld et al., 2000). Children living in this area developed gastroenteritis each year as they use the water reservoir which contains a natural bloom of Microcystis (Zilberg 1966). The case of chronic effects in humans may be present due to short exposure to toxins (Goodman et al., 1999). The incidence in China, 1995 due to microcystins have lead to chronic of liver injury, hepatocellular carcinoma. This is primary cancer of the liver and most are secondary to hepatitis B infection. From the case analyzed, cyanobacteria are abundant in surface waters of south east China, where the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma is highest. Thus, it has been concluded that microcystins in the drinking water are responsible for the increased of liver cancer (Falconer 1998). Compare to all cyanotoxins, cyclic peptides (mostly microcystins) has high risk because of their potential to develop diseases in long term time, even when exposed to low concentration of cyanotoxins. This was confirmed after examined all the cases reported, where the major injury is hepatotoxicosis, cause liver damage. In contrast, neurotoxin mostly shows acute effect in mammals (Goddman et al., 1999). Routes of exposure There are many ways where humans and animals can be exposed to cyanotoxins. From the cases reported, animals usually infected by cyanotoxins orally via drinking contaminated water. For instance, the case reported of cattle deaths in Alpine Lakes, Switzerland (1974-1994). The cattle died because of liver damage after drinking the water which contains bloom of cyanobacteria (Hitzfeld et al., 2000). Besides, human can get infection of cyanotoxins during the recreational activity involving direct contact with water such as swimming, canoeing and paddling (Apeldoorn et al., 2007). In 1989, UK, some of army recruits showed symptoms of infected by cyanotoxins after swimming and canoes training in water with dense bloom of Mocrocystis. The signs of symptoms were vomiting, diarrhea, blistering of the lips, sore throat and central abdominal pain (Turner et al., 1990). The person that worked in the area of water such as boatmen and environmental scientists are also easily to get infection. Acco rding to Dittmann and Wiegand (2006), the consumption of blue green algae containing food and dietary supplements, such as pills or capsules, also can lead to gain the toxicity of cyanobacteria. According to Codd et al (1999), there are four routes of exposure where human can get infection of cyanotoxins (Table 2). The first one is via oral routes, taken by ingestion during recreational activity, drinking water, food and dietary supplements that contain dried cyanotoxins. The oral route has caused the outbreak of many diseased, such as gastroenteritis and hepatoenteritis after drinking water (Codd et al 1999). Infection by pulmonary route occurs either by inhalation of cyanobacteria bloom during recreational activity or work practices in industrial spray water (Codd et al., 1999). Next, dermal route is associated with skin or mucosal contact the contaminated water. This can lead to skin irritation and allergic reaction. Lastly, haemodialysis route can occurred via water used in haemodialysis treatment. Among the cases of this route, is the case of major fatal incident at haemodialysis clinic in Caruaru, Brazil. This case happened in 1996, where the patients with dialysis tre atment were treated with water from local reservoir. All patients experienced symptoms of nausea, vomiting, muscle weakness and painful hepatomegaly. Then, these patients developed acute liver failure and acute neurotoxicity signs. From all the treated patients, 60 have been recorded as dead. Microcystins released by Aphanizomenon and Oscillatoria have been recognized as the toxins that responsible for this death (Codd et al., 1999). Exposure route Exposure medium Oral (ingestion) drinking water, recreational water, food (shellfish, finfish if toxin if toxin accumulation has occurred during production), dietary supplements (pills, capsules) if contains dried cyanobacterial cells with toxins. Pulmonary (inhalation, aspiration) water: aerosols, spray during recreation, work, showering Dermal water during recreation, work, showering (skin, mucosal contact) Haemodialysis water used for haemodialysis Table 2: Taken from Codd et al., 2005. This figure summaries the human exposure route and exposure medium for cyanotoxins. Diseases in Animals and Humans Hepatoenteritis Liver damage Hepatoenteritis is described as hepatitis-like illness, where associated with liver problem. This diseased can infect both human and animals. The outbreak of hepatoenteritis disease was reported in 1979 and occurred in Palm Island of the Queensland, Australia. Thus, this case also name as â€Å"Palm Island Mystery Disease† because the water drinking is supply from Palm Island reservoir (Ohtani et al., 1992). Investigation have shown that the reservoir contain the bloom of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii. This species released cylindrospermopsin and responsible for developed of severe hepatoenteritis among the 140 children and 10 adults. The common symptoms of this disease are malaise, anorexia, vomiting, painful liver enlargement, dehydration and bloody diarrhea. This toxin is very water soluble and infect into body by oral route via drinking water. According to Falconer and Humpage (2006), the mechanism of action for cylindrospermopsin is relatively slow. It work by inhibit pr otein synthesis at ribosome during the peptide chain elongation step. Besides, the toxins also released CYP450 oxidation that work to inhibit the glutathione synthesis. Both inhibitions caused major changes in liver, particularly hepatocytes. First, accumulation of ribosomes in the cytoplasm of hepatocytes and followed by membrane proliferation. Next, the accumulation of lipid in the central portion of hepatic lobules and all this lead to severe liver necrosis (Duy et al., 2000). Kidney, lung, heart, spleen and thymus also might be affects. The toxins of microcystins are majorly involved in liver damage. Most of microcystins types are hydrophilic and thus, not able to penetrate vertebrate cell membrane. It only can uptake into cell membrane via transporter. Once the microcystins are uptake by mammals, it is transport into the blood from the ileum via bile acid type transporter, that present in hepatocytes (Apeldoorn et al 2007). As a result, the present of microcystins is higher in liver due to active uptake by hepatocytes. Once inside the hepatocytes, microcystins act as potent inhibitor of eukaryotic protein phosphatases 1 and 2A. These inhibitions cause changes in cytoskeletal proteins, and thus results in deformation of hepatocytes. The liver may undergo changes in term of a disruption of hepatocytes structure due to damage of cytoskeleton, loss of sinusoidal structure, increased in liver weight because of intrahepatic haemorrhage, heart failure and death. Gastroenteritis Gastroenteritis is inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, where involved stomach and intestine. This diseased can be cause by infection from cyanobacteria bloom of Microcystis sp and Anabaena sp. Acording to Hitzfeld et al (2000), the cases of gastroenteritis that have been recorded due to cyanobacteria bloom were occured in Ohio River, US (1931), Harare, Zimbabwe (1966) and Itaparica Dam, Brazil (1993). However, the toxins that responsible for this diseased still remain unknown because lack of available toxin analysis method and knowledge of candidate toxins at the time (Codd et al., 1999). Recently, there is case where LPS endotoxin is responsible for gastroenteritis incidents (Codd et al., 2005). Gastroenteritis is categorized under acute effect and mostly results in diarrhea. Besides, the symptoms shows are nausea and vomiting, loss of appetite, fever, headaches and abnormal pain. Respiratory problem Neurotoxins effects can lead to progressive paralysis and death because of respiratory failure. The case of livestock death in Europe and the US have been reported due to anatoxin-a, released from the genera of Oscillatoria, Aphanizomenon and Anabaena (Falconer, 1998). Anatoxin-a acts as a potent postsynaptic depolarizing neuromuscular blocking agent, where it binds to neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors of neuromuscular junction (Goodman et al., 1999) .This cause postsynaptic sodium channel of neuron is remain open and lead to continuous stimulation of sodium ion influx and continuously generates action potential. Consequently, the muscle contraction is over react and might be followed by fatigue and respiratory failure (Dittmann and Wiegand, 2006). This toxin can cause rapidly death depending on the species and amount of toxin ingested. The clinical sign of this infection are muscle fasciculation, decreased movement, abdominal breathing, cyanosis, and death by respiratory fa ilure. Saxitoxins are another type of neurotoxins that can infect both human and animals. As mention before, the case of Darling River in Australia (1990-1991) involved the deaths of sheep and cattle due to saxitoxins. Then, in human, saxitoxins have been the cause of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). Saxitoxins acts as a blocking agent of sodium channel in nerve axons. In mammals, this induces muscle paralyzed (respiratory muscle) and can follow by death due to respiratory failure (Apeldoorn et al., 2007). Skin irritation and allergic Lyngbya majuscula is one of the cyanobacteria that released aplysiatoxin and lyngbyatoxin. These toxins act as potent skin tumour promoters. Both toxins, especially aplysiatoxin, cause skin irritation after contact with bloom of Lyngbya majuscula. Swimmers of Hawaii and Okinawa got acute dermatitis (causing itch), erythematous wheals and desquamation after contact with Lyngbya majuscule (Codd et al., 1999). Besides, symptoms have included rashes, blisters, allergic reaction, asthma, conjunctivitis, and eye irritation. Conclusion The development of cyanobacterial bloom tends to be favored by nutrient enrichment (eutrophication). Therefore, enough nutrients will provide extremely growth of cyanobacteria bloom and thus, lead to high production of cyanotoxins once it is lyses. The most clearly study of toxins is microcystins due to widespread of its production among the cyanobacteria blooms. Besides, their existences that usually can be found in lakes, rivers and water supply reservoirs also lead to increased the chance to affect humans and animals health compare to the other toxins. As mention above, there are four routes where infection of cyanotoxins could occurs, which are by oral route, dermal route, pulmonary route and lastly via haemodialysis route. Once the toxins get inside humans and animals, they will start reacts and disturb the system inside the body according to its modes of actions. Therefore, it leads to outbreak of many diseased such as hepatoenteritis, gastroenteritis, respiratory problem and s kin irritation and allergic. However, till now there are some mechanism of toxins that still not understood, such as lyngbyatoxins (Goodman et al., 1999).Then, further work also need to be done in order to solve the cases of unknown toxic affect humans and animals that have been recorded. For example, the case of the outbreak of gastroenteritis diseased occurred in Ohio River, US (1931), Harare, Zimbabwe (1966) and Itaparica, Dam, Brazil (1993), where no actual toxins have been identified (Hitzfeld et al., 2000). 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